MIDTERM-2

1-Problem: A problem is everything that confuses human mind, challenges to human beings and makes one’s belief indistinct says John Dewey. Therefore, it is understood from the definition that a solution to a problem depends mainly on clearing the uncertainty. Also problem ‘phenomenon’ changes from person to person since anything that one considers as a problem might not be a problem for the others if they are not confused according to the definition. People face problems in every minute of the life because problems are occur in many areas like in society, in work, in family and the like. Life is not easy, and to distinguish successful, ambitious and strong people in society, problems are necessary.
References: http://madmath.blogcu.com/2995217/

2-Method: A method basically is a procedure, technique or a way of doing something in accordance with a definite plan. Analyzing the definition of method, it is clearly observed that method includes a great variety of different applications. Methods are mercurial since everybody chooses a method which is most suitable for his/her own style. One’s method of doing anything can be considered as very complex by the others as methods are flexible and unique to people. But one important thing about the methods is that methods are applied in coordination with a definite plan.
References: http://www.blurtit.com/q984120.html

Methodology: Methods change from person to person and from concept to concept. There is not one right method according to the people, but one of the methods is better than the others in general and at that point ‘methodology’ appears. Methodology refers to the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods. To understand the difference between method and methodology it is better to give an example about the researches. For instance; methods are the procedures for collecting and analyzing data like the way to get the data. Methodology is the strategy behind choice of methods to reach the result like the reason to choose that way.
References:http://www.proz.com/kudoz/english/education_pedagogy/973883-method_and_methodology.html

3-Theory: One can explain theory with its three vital features. As used in science, a theory is an explanation or model based on observation, experimentation and reasoning. A theory is tested and confirmed as a general principle. Lastly, it helps to explain and predict natural phenomena. Therefore, one can conclude that theories are based on rational examination of the facts. The distinction between the facts and theories is important at that point. Briefly, facts can be observed or measured while theories are explanations correlating and interpreting the facts.
References: http://www.dimaggio.org/Evolution/meaning_of_theory.htm

Hypothesis: It is a commonly made mistake to confuse a hypothesis with theories since they are much related to each other. A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event. The most important feature of a hypothesis is that it should be testable statement which may include a prediction. However, theories are already based on a large amount of data. In the high school, the first thing that we are taught in biology was the scientific method. Hypotheses are commonly used in scientific method and it is easier to see the difference between a theory and a hypothesis in a scientific method schema:


References: http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.php

*Correlating the first three questions, I can summarize the definitions by giving an easy example. If one has a problem related to science, scientific method can be used to solve it and using this method, hypotheses should be produced. When the right hypothesis is found and the problem is solved, it might be one’s first step to a new theory.

Paradigm: Paradigm concept is a bit confusing to define. A paradigm is the consensus of the scientific community, “concrete problem solutions that the profession has come to accept” says Hoyningen-Huene briefly. Thomas Kuhn gives a more detailed definition and uses the term ‘scientific paradigm’. He defines it as what is to be observed, the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked, how to structure these questions and how the results should be interpreted. To clarify the paradigm concept, it is better to relate it with theory and hypothesis in one example: People are naturally good so they have to be controlled by society is a paradigm. One possible theory from this paradigm is that governments have a responsibility to maintain law and order. Lastly, one hypothesis from this theory is that a society is safer with capital punishment.
References:http://capita.wustl.edu/ME567_Informatics/concepts/paradigm.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm

4-Strategy: Strategy comes from the Greek ‘strategia’ meaning ‘generalship’ so it is a military based word. Strategy is the bridge between policy and tactics or between high-order goals and concrete actions. Informally, strategy is perspective, position, plan and pattern. It involves a wide range of concepts. Thus, strategy can be described with very complex words or with philosophic words. Among many strategy definitions I met, the most interesting and deep definition was that of Michael Porter. He says that strategy means deliberately choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value. I think differentiating yourself is the key part of strategy.
References: http://home.att.net/~nickols/strategy_definition.html

Plan: Most people know that planning plays important role on achieving goals. We all have goals and plans to achieve them but how many of us know the true meaning of planning. At first, a plan should be feasible and carefully created because any mistake may result in disappointment. Also, a plan should respond to a definite goal or expectation. Lastly, there are always some problems and obstacles through a target so one should be ready for them. I personally apply plans before exam weeks to organize my daily routines and studying time of exam subjects. My aim is to study all exam subjects before the exam and to continue my social life at the same time. I take into consideration the obstacles like extra homework during this planning process. When the exam date comes, the strategy takes its place. Considering the past exams I apply the best strategy for me which I decide before the exam.
References: http://www.odevsel.com/egitim/2304/plan-nedir-yapilacak-bir-array-isin-onceden-tasarlanmasidir-neyi-ne-zaman.html

Control: Control in terms of management is an important function to check the errors and to take the corrective action. When the management concept appears, it is better to apply Henry Fayol’s definition. Fayol says that control consists of seeing everything in coordination with the plan, the orders and the principles. Control’s object is to find mistakes and prevent them from occurring again. Control’s main features are that it is continuous, forward-looking, related with planning and it occurs in every level of hierarchy.
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_(management)

5-Model: A model can come in many shapes, sizes and styles. It is important to emphasize that a model is not the real world but only a human construct to help us better understand real world systems. George E.P. Box says that all models are wrong but some are useful. A person, a system or an idea can be a model for any one but there are some key features of a model. To develop a model simplifying assumptions must be made, boundary conditions must be identified and the range of applicability should be understood.
References: http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/models/WhatIsAModel.html

Snowball Effect: It is not commonly seen in the real life but in cartoons a small ball of snow rolls down a hill and gets greater and greater chasing a character. Also, a Turkish proverb uses the same logic in ‘damlaya damlaya göl olur’ meaning ‘many a mickle makes a muckle’. It is understood from the analogies that snowball effect is not a complex term and is used commonly. Snowball effect is a process starting from a negligible and small state but getting larger and more dangerous. When you imagine it, at first it is really small and slow, so it is difficult to expect it to get larger. However, it gets faster after a time interval like it is expected in the real process which is symbolized by snowball effect.

References: http://www.walletpop.com/2008/02/18/paying-down-debt-use-the-snowball-effect/

Waterfall Diagram: Waterfall diagram is a type of process diagram that describes the linear flow of steps in a progressive nature. The word ‘waterfall’ is used for this diagram because once water has passed over the edge of the waterfall it cannot go back; similarly once a stage has been completed there is no going back to it. Each stage of a waterfall diagram has distinct goals and once those goals are met, the development moves on. In the original waterfall model of Winston W. Royce development flows through the phases of requirements analysis, design, implementation, testing, integration and maintenance. The most important criticism to this model is that it is difficult to get one phase perfect enough before passing to the others. It is sometimes referred to as the linear sequential model or the software life cycle. Here are two different examples of waterfall diagram to visualize:

References: http://www.presentationload.com/powerpoint-charts-diagrams/data-driven-diagrams/waterfall-diagram.html?lang=1
http://www.billiondollargraphics.com/waterfalldiagram.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall_model

6-Validation/validity: Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is also vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied. The definition may seem a bit complex but briefly if something is valid then it is reliable, applicable and proven by statistic and scientific methods. There are mainly three types of validity: content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity. Validation also derives from the word ‘valid’. Validation is the process of checking if something satisfies a certain criterion. For instance, our mid-term papers are not valid if we are not in the exam place that we are supposed to be. Here, validation is the absenteeism paper.
References: http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/validity.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validate

Significance: Significance is the extent to which something matters; importance, but this brief explanation does not express much thing. When it is analyzed within the term “statistical significance” it will more likely to create a clear definition. When a statistic is significant it simply means that you are very sure that the statistic is reliable. It does not mean the finding is important. Many researchers use the word “significant” to describe a finding that is unlikely to have occurred by chance, while some others use it to describe a difference or relationship that may be important. Either use is correct depending on the conjuncture.
References: http://www.statpac.com/surveys/statistical-significance.htm

Reliability: Reliability is directly related with the quality of measurement. A measure is considered reliable if it would give the same result over and over again. Thus, anything reliable should be repeatable or consistent. It may seem like a scientific term because of the measurement requirements, but a person or a car can also be reliable. For instance, person’s reliability is tested with his/her behavior. Also when reliability and validity are explained together, they form a continuum. On one hand is the situation where the concepts and methods of measurement are the same (reliability) and on the other is the situation where concepts and methods of measurement are different.
References: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/relandval.php
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=24

Relevance/relevant: Relevance is a criterion used in evaluating the quality of information. Relevance describes how closely the contents of an information source match the topics. It mainly depends on the requirements of the readers or an authority. For example, in the exams students sometimes write what they know as a solution to get some points if they do not know the exact answer. However, they do not always get much point since the given answer is not relevant to the expected answer. In this case the requirements of the relevance are determined by the teachers.
References: http://lib.nmsu.edu/instruction/healthsci/vocab.html

7-Event: In general, there are two distinct meanings of event. An event is an activity that happens or something that represents this activity in a computer system. A financial trade or a natural occurrence such as an earthquake are examples for the first definition while an email confirmation of an airline reservation or a message that reports a stock trade are examples for the second definition. The first definition is commonly used and to make it more complex and specific one can define an event as occurrence happening at a determinable time and place, with or without the participation of human agents. It may be a part of a chain of occurrences- as an effect or a cause.
References: http://complexevents.com/?p=195
http://thinkexist.com/dictionary/meaning/event/
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/event.html

Process: A process can be defined as “a logical series of related transactions that converts input to results or output” (Andersen, 1999). According to the definition, to initiate a process a logical series of activities is required, so the first step of process is to identify the boundaries. This is where the process begins and ends. After that, a trigger, which is defined as input in the definition, is needed. A trigger can be anything such as a person, information or an obligation. Then, the process starts, and according to the definition it ends until the result occurs. The results or outputs should be something aimed before the process.
References: http://oeas.ucf.edu/process_analysis/what_is_pa.htm
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/performance/process_definition.html

Life cycle: The complete cycle of events occurring over the lifetime of an animate or inanimate object. For example, in the life cycle of a plant, seeds are dropped in the ground, the plants grow with the help of water and soil, and the plants die. A product life cycle is the series of steps involved in manufacturing, distributing, using, and recycling. Thus, one can say that it is related with the time and contents, namely the period of the life span of anything and the things involved in this period.
References: http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/education/quest/gloss1a.htm

8-Iterative: Iterative is an adjective meaning repetitious. To understand its meaning well, it is better to use the term ‘iterative development’ and differentiate it with waterfall method. As I mentioned above, waterfall development completes each discipline in a single step before moving onto the next discipline. This causes some disadvantages, namely it is more sensible to changes, any undetected problems may result in disaster and for any observer seeing the end of a project the idea is vague. However, iterative development involves iterations or steps which have well-defined objects. Also, each successive iteration refines the system until everything is complete. Therefore, this approach is open to changes, is less risky, correctable and interactive.
References: http://www.appropriateapproach.com/resources/itdev.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_and_incremental_development
http://www2.umassd.edu/SWPI/xp/articles/r6047.pdf

Sequential: Sequential means briefly following a sequential order according to the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. It will be better to distinguish these similar terms by comparing. While some people claim that waterfall model is dead, some others say that many companies still follow a variation of a sequential development model whose origin is waterfall model. A sequential development model is one where development activities follow each other in a forward sequence. The work flows from one development activity to the next and as a handicap each development activity has to be finished before the next starts. In iterative models, there is chance to revise the process and to correct the mistakes, but this one is stricter. However, some kinds of sequential development models allow going through a backpass in the case of changes of mind which are inevitable. It is an exception and the aim is to conclude each activity before starting the next.
References:http://proquestcombo.safaribooksonline.com/0321117662/ch18lev1sec5
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=71885&dict=CALD



9-Data collection: Data collection is a process of preparing and gathering data with the aim of establishing a baseline for an activity. Data collection should ensure accurate, timely and clear information for the success of the activity. Although there are not strict and fast rules for data collection, there are some basic principles to be followed. Firstly the goals and the type of data to collect should be defined. Then, according the data type, methods should be decided. After these procedures and data collection, data should be analyzed or presented.
References: http://www.leanyourcompany.com/methods/Establishing-a-data-collection-plan-1.asp
http://www.isixsigma.com/library/content/c010422a.asp

Observation: Observation is a research method which provides the opportunity to document activities, behavior and physical aspects without questioning since it depends only on five physical senses. Among these senses, listening and hearing are keys to observation. It is a data collection method but it cannot be applied for every kind of data. When you want direct information, when you try to understand an event, when there is physical evidence or when other data collection methods are inappropriate, observation is preferred. Lastly, for more accurate results quality and utility of the information obtained from an observation plays an important role.
References: http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/G3658-5.pdf

Abstraction: Abstraction is the process of hiding the details and exposing only the essential features of a particular concept or object. This definition is valid for every areas using abstraction, but in terms of art there are more specific explanations. Painters do not always try to draw people or objects realistically. Imitation leaves its place to deliberate changes. They stretch forms, break up shapes and give objects interesting colors. The reason of these changes is to communicate something they cannot convey through realistic treatment. Works of art that expresses the nature differently for demonstrative effect are called abstract. Art that derives from a recognizable subject is called abstraction.
References: http://cnx.org/content/m11785/latest/
http://www.nga.gov/education/american/abstract.shtm
http://www.cs.rutgers.edu/~decarlo/abstract.html

Awareness: Awareness includes a human’s or an animal’s perception and reaction to a condition or event. Awareness is just an ability to perceive and it is a relative concept. One sees the full side of a glass of water while one other sees the empty side of it. A painting which does not imply anything for one can have a deep meaning for one other. The difference between the perceptions of the people is mainly because of different cultures, points of view and general knowledge. For example people having more optimistic point of view will see the full side of the glass.
References: http://stuffwhitepeoplelike.wordpress.com/2008/01/23/18-awareness/

*Correlation between my beautiful vs. kitsch picture and these terms: Not beautiful but kitsch concept was a new thing for me, so at first I had to collect data to know what I would look for. After learning the terms “beautiful and kitsch” I continued to collect data by using observation method. Analyzing the alternative pictures that I had after observation I tried to choose the ones that would reflect the concept more effectively. The flowers in front of mechanical engineering department were the best for the “beautiful” concept. It was harder for me to choose the other picture, but I decided to use the building in front of the physics department. It was the place to commemorate Atatürk, but it was located among buildings of education rather than a more central area of the campus, so I chose it for the “kitsch” concept. It was right or not but just my perception. Lastly, I decided to hide the background of the beautiful picture but I took a photo for the kitsch part from a further distance to emphasize the contrast as a result of abstraction technique.

BEAUTIFUL VS. KITSCH ON THE CAMPUS

Kitsch on the campus

Beautiful on the campus

MIDTERM-1 PART-2 QUESTION-2

Answer-2:

• In terms of etymology, engineering derives from the word ‘engineer’ which itself dates back to 1325 when an engine’er referred to a constructor of military engines. The word ‘engine’ originally derives from the Latin ‘ingenium’, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention and Latin ‘ingeniare’, meaning to devise in the sense of construct or craftsmanship. There exists the concept of engineering after the basic inventions such as the pulley, lever and wheel in the ancient times. Later, the term civil engineering entered to lexicon after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish it from military engineering. The Acropolis in Greece, the Great Wall of China, the pyramids in Egypt and many others stand as an evidence for the creative imagination and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers. The earliest civil engineer known is Imhotep who is also remembered to use columns for the first time in architecture.
  Since the earliest days of the universities in the Middle Ages, professional schools have been associated with institutions of higher education. Professional schools were started to provide training and education in areas for society. Some of the earliest schools and their subjects include the study of medicine in Salerno, the study of law in Bologna and the study of theology in Paris. As society’s needs turned more practical and more advanced, other subjects qualified for participation in a university environment, including engineering. After this period, the first schools of engineering were founded in France in the middle of the 18th century. The first school- which still exists today- that taught civil engineering is the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, which awarded the first engineering degree in 1835.
  References: http://www.seas.ucla.edu/hsseas/history/origin.html, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering,
• Engineering is defined as ‘the application of scientific knowledge about matter and energy for practical human uses such as construction, machinery, products or systems’ in Academic Press dictionary of science and technology (1992), p.749, San Diego. Engineers use the laws of nature to create and change the artifacts of modern life. It is simply the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use of human-beings. Nowadays, engineering involves people, money, materials, machines and energy. It is different from the science since it is primarily concerned with how to direct to useful and economical ends the natural phenomena which scientists discover and formulate into theories. Hence, in my opinion at the center of the engineering profession lies the creative imagination to innovate because engineering is always dissatisfied with present methods. It seeks newer, cheaper, better sources and materials.
  References:http://ai.kaist.ac.kr/~jkim/SEP583-2005/Resources-shl/20050802/R6-ref-ProfessionalSE-FactorFiction-McConnell-IEEESW-00805468.pdf, http://www.coe.uncc.edu/students/prospective/whatisengr.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering
• Engineers mainly apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to the economical solution of problems. Their work is often a link between a discovery or invention and its application. Engineers also work in testing, production and maintenance and estimate the time and cost to complete projects in addition to design and development. Thus, there various types of engineering
  References: http://www.teachingtools.com/Slinky/engineers.html, http://appsci.queensu.ca/prospective/engineering/info/
• The main branches of engineering can be categorized as follows:
  1-Aerospace Engineering: The design of aircraft, spacecraft, etc.
  2-Chemical Engineering: The conversion of raw materials into usable commodities.
  3-Civil Engineering: The design and construction of public and private works, such as bridges, buildings, etc.
  4-Electrical Engineering: The design of electrical systems as well as electronic goods.
  5-Mechanical Engineering: The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as engines, power trains, kinematical chains, etc.
  6-Industrial Engineering: The development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of integrated systems.
  Industrial engineering uses the principles and methods of engineering analysis as well as mathematical, physical and social sciences and aims to specify, predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, energy and other resources. Industrial engineering has a different style among other engineering branches. The most important difference is that industrial engineers are concerned with the whole rather than the pieces. Also, industrial engineers take into account the human factor for any applications; that’s why, there is a strong relationship with industrial engineering and social sciences. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering, http://www.creatingtechnology.org/branch.htm

MIDTERM-1 PART-2 QUESTION-1

Answer-1:

• Frank Bunker GILBRETH – Lillian Moller GILBRETH: Frank Bunker Gilbreth was a proponent of scientific management and Taylorism. Lillian Moller Gilbreth was the first organizational/industrial psychologist and was one of the first working female engineers holding a PhD. She and her husband, namely known as Gilbreths, had interests in time and motion studies. They were pioneers in the area of industrial engineering. Lillian worked on matters of civil defense, war production and rehabilitation of the physically handicapped people while Frank sought to understand the work habits of industrial employees and to find ways to increasing. Gilbreths’ work is often associated with Taylor’s but Taylorism was primarily concerned with reducing the time of processes while Gilbreths aimed to make processes more efficient by reducing the motions. Also, they were more concerned with workers’ welfare whereas Taylorism was concerned with profit. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Bunker_Gilbreth, http://www.accel-team.com/scientific/scientific_03.html, http://telecollege.dcccd.edu/mgmt1374/book_contents/1overview/management_history/mgmt_history.htm
• Frederick Winslow TAYLOR: Taylor’s name was synonymous with scientific management, a revolutionary movement that proposed the reduction of waste through the careful study of work. He sought to improve industrial efficiency. He believed in the fact that the best results would come from the partnership between a trained and qualified management and a cooperative and innovative workforce. He is remembered for developing the time and motion study. He also developed a theory of organizations which changed the personalized autocracy which had only been tempered by varying degrees of benevolence. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor, http://ibiblio.org/eldritch/fwt/taylor.html
• Henry FAYOL: Fayol was a pioneer of operational management theory. He was one of the most effective contributors to 20th century’s concepts of management, having suggested that there are five primary functions of management: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. He is regarded as the first to question the nature of management and put forward a theory designed to apply in all managerial contexts. He tried to present his theory in such a way that the business procedures he had studied and developed could be applied to any organization, regardless of size or nature. He suggested that management applies equally to the family as it does to corporation. He is generally associated with Taylor. They both coped with the efficient organization of production. However, Taylor viewed management processes from the bottom up while Fayol viewed it from the top down. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Fayol, http://www.ozyazilim.com/ozgur/marmara/orgut/yon_teo2.htm#_Toc465482723
• Max WEBER: Weber is best known as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology, but he also accomplished much economic work. His major works cope with rationalization in sociology of religion and government. He showed the importance of characteristics of ascetic Protestantism which led to the development of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal state in the west. In Politics as a Vocation, he defined the state as an entity which claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. His other contributions to economics include an economic history of Roman agrarian society and dual roles of idealism and materialism in the history of capitalism. References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber, http://ansiklopedi.turkcebilgi.com/Max_Weber
• Abraham MASLOW: Maslow, an American psychologist, is known for his conceptualization of a hierarchy of human needs and is considered the father of humanistic psychology.

The lower the need is in the pyramid, the more powerful it is. The lower needs are also similar to those of animals. Once the psychological needs are met, an individual can concentrate on the second level which includes the need for safety and security. The third level is the need for love and belonging while the fourth one is esteem needs. Finally, self-actualization sits at the top. References: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow

• If I were one of these people, I would prefer to be Frank Bunker Gilbreth because of the similarities between his studies and my lifestyle. He applied his studies not only in his career but also in his daily life, so I am affected by this attitude of him. Also, it seems more reasonable to me to reduce the motions rather than the time.
  

MIDTERM-1 PART-1 Division of labor, Assembly line, Mass Production

Division of labor
Division of labor is the separation of a work process into a number of tasks, with each task performed by a separate person or group of persons. It is most often applied to systems of mass production and is one of the basic organizing principles of the assembly line. Dividing work into simple tasks eliminates unnecessary motion and limits the handling of different tools and parts. The consequent reduction in production time and the ability to replace craftsmen with lower-paid, unskilled workers result in lower production costs and a less expensive final product. Contrary to popular belief, division of labour does not necessarily lead to a decrease in skills, known as proletarianization, among the working population. The Scottish economist, Adam Smith, saw this as a key to economic progress by providing a cheaper and more efficient means of producing goods.

The French scholar Émile Durkheim first used the phrase, division of labour, in a sociological sense in his discussion of social evolution. Rather than viewing division of labour as a consequence of a desire for material abundance, Durkheim stated that specialization arose from changes in social structure caused by an assumed natural increase in the size and density of population and a corresponding increase in competition for survival. Division of labour functioned to keep societies from breaking apart under these conditions.

The intensive specialization in industrial societies—the refinement and simplification of tasks (especially associated with a machine technology) so that a worker often produces only a small part of a particular commodity—is not usually found in nonindustrialized societies. There is rarely a division of labour within an industry in nonliterate communities, except perhaps for the production of larger goods (such as houses or canoes); in these cases the division is often a temporary one, and each worker is competent to perform other phases of the task. There may be some specialization in types of product (e.g. one worker may produce pottery for religious uses; another, pottery for ordinary uses), but each worker usually performs all steps of the process.

Assembly line
In order to keep up with the increasing demand for those original devices, horseless carriages, Ransom Olds created the assembly line in 1901. The new approach to putting together automobiles enabled him to more than quadruple his factory’s output, from 425 cars in 1901 to 2,500 in 1902.Olds should have become known as "the father of automotive assembly line" although many people think that it was Henry Ford who invented the assembly line. What Ford did do was to improve upon Olds’s idea by installing conveyor belts. That cut the time of manufacturing a Model T from a day and a half to a mere ninety minutes. Henry Ford should been called "the father of automotive mass production".

Mass production
In 1907, Henry Ford announced his goal for the Ford Motor Company: to create "a motor car for the great multitude". At that time, automobiles were expensive machines. Ford's engineers took the first step towards this goal by designing the Model T, a simple, sturdy car offering no factory options. The Model T, first produced in 1908, kept the same design until the last one -number 15,000,000- rolled off the line in 1927. From the start, the Model T was less expensive than most other cars, but it was still not attainable for the "multitude". Ford realized he would need a more efficient way to produce the car in order to lower the price. He and his team looked at other industries and found four principles that would further their goal: interchangeable parts, continuous flow, division of labor, and reducing wasted effort.Using interchangeable parts meant making the individual pieces of the car the same every time. That way would fit any engine and any steering wheel would fit any chassis. The efficiencies to be gained were proven in the assembly of standardized photography equipment pioneered by George Eastman in 1892. This meant improving the machinery and cutting tools used to make the parts. But once the machines were adjusted, a low-skilled laborer could operate them, replacing the skilled craftsperson who formerly made the parts by hand. To improve the flow of the work, it needed to be arranged so that as one task was finished, another began, with minimum time spent in set-up. Ford was inspired by the meat-packing houses of Chicago and a grain mill conveyor belt he had seen. If he brought the work to the workers, they spent less time moving about. Then he divided the labor by breaking the assembly of the Model T into 84 steps. Each worker was trained to do just one of these steps. Ford called in Frederick Winslow Taylor, the creator of "scientific management", to do time and motion studies to determine the exact speed at which the work should proceed and the exact motions workers should use to accomplish their tasks. By reducing wasted effort, Ford put these principles into play gradually over five years. In 1913, they came together in the first moving assembly line ever used for large-scale manufacturing. Ford produced cars at a record-breaking rate. That meant he could lower the price and still make a good profit by selling more cars. Ford's manufacturing principles were adopted by many other industries. The process was so revolutionary that the term "to Fordize" meant to standardize a product and manufacture it by mass means at a price so low that the common man could afford to buy it. Henry Ford went beyond his goal of making cars affordable for all; he changed the habits of a nation, and shaped its character.

References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_labor, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046713/division-of-labour, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68160/mass-production#68160.toc, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_production, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009928/assembly-line, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line, http://www.essortment.com/all/movingassembly_rfjh.htm

MIDTERM-1 PART-1 Henry Ford

Childhood
Henry Ford, born July 30, 1863, enjoyed a childhood spending days in a one-room school and doing farm chores. At an early age, he showed an interest in mechanical things and a dislike for farm work.

In 1879, sixteen-year-old Ford left home for Detroit to work as an apprentice machinist. He remained an apprentice for three years and then returned to Dearborn. During the next few years, Henry operated and repaired steam engines, found occasional work in a Detroit factory and dealt with his father's farm implements. Upon his marriage to Clara Bryant in 1888, Henry supported himself and his wife by running a sawmill.

The Engineer
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company in Detroit. After that Ford started to dedicate his life to industrial pursuits. His promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893 gave him enough time and money for his experiments on internal combustion engines.

These experiments resulted in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle, the Quadricycle. The Quadricycle had four wire wheels that looked like heavy bicycle wheels, was steered with a tiller like a boat and had only two forward speeds with no reverse.

Ford was not the first to build a self-propelled vehicle with a gasoline engine, but he was one of the pioneers who helped his country become a nation of motorists.

Ford Motor Company
After two unsuccessful attempts to establish a company to manufacture automobiles, the Ford Motor Company was incorporated in 1903 with Henry Ford as vice-president and chief engineer. The company produced only a few cars a day at the Ford factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit. Groups of two or three men worked on each car.
Henry Ford dreamed of producing an automobile that was reasonably priced, reliable and efficient. Model T initiated a new era in personal transportation. It was easy to operate, maintain and handle on rough roads, immediately becoming a huge success.

By 1918, half of all cars in America were Model Ts. To meet the growing demand for the Model T, the company opened a large factory at Highland Park, Michigan, in 1910. Henry Ford combined precision manufacturing, interchangeable and standardized parts, a division of labor, and in 1913, a continuous moving assembly line. Workers remained in place, adding one component to each automobile as it moved past them on the line. Delivery of parts by conveyor belt to the workers was carefully timed to keep the assembly line moving smoothly and efficiently. The introduction of the moving assembly line revolutionized automobile production by significantly reducing assembly time per vehicle and lowering costs. Ford's production of Model Ts made his company the largest automobile manufacturer in the world.

The company began construction of the world's largest industrial complex along the banks of the Rouge River in Dearborn, Michigan, during the late 1910s and early 1920s. The massive Rouge Plant included all the elements needed for automobile production: a steel mill, glass factory, and automobile assembly line. Iron ore and coal were brought in on Great Lakes steamers and by railroad, and were used to produce both iron and steel. Rolling mills, forges, and assembly shops transformed the steel into springs, axles and car bodies. Foundries converted iron into engine blocks and cylinder heads that were assembled with other components into engines. By September 1927, all steps in the manufacturing process from refining raw materials to final assembly of the automobile took place at the vast Rouge Plant, characterizing Henry Ford's idea of mass production.
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford, http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/hf/, http://www.incwell.com/Biographies/Ford.html

MIDTERM-1 PART-1 Frederic Winslow Taylor

Frederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 - March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer who made studies in improving industrial efficiency. He is sometimes called "the father of scientific management" in his later years. He was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas were highly effective in the Progressive Era.

He was born in Germantown, Pennsylvania. In 1878, he began working at the Midvale Steel Company. He became foreman of the steel plant and started his studies in the measurement of industrial productivity. Taylor developed detailed systems and aimed to gain maximum efficiency from both workers and machines in the factory. These systems relied on time and motion studies, which help determine the best methods for performing a task in the least amount of time. In 1898, he involvedin the discovery of the Taylor-White process, a method of tempering steel. Taylor served as consulting engineer for several companies. His management methods were published in The Principles of Scientific Management.

Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles:
1- Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
2- Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
3- Provide "detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task".
4- Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.

References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor, http://www.ekonomi.name/ekonomistler/frederick-winslow-taylor.html, http://ibiblio.org/eldritch/fwt/taylor.html